What Is the De Broglie Equation

In 1924, Louis de Broglie presented his research thesis, in which he proposed electrons have properties of both waves and particles, like light. He rearranged the terms of the Plank-Einstein relation to apply to all types of matter. de Broglie Equation Definition The de Broglie equation is an equation used to describe the wave properties of matter, specifically, the wave nature of the electron:​Î » h/mv,where ÃŽ » is wavelength, h is Plancks constant, m is the mass of a particle, moving at a velocity v.de Broglie suggested that particles can exhibit properties of waves. The de Broglie hypothesis was verified when matter waves were observed in George Paget Thomsons cathode ray diffraction experiment and the Davisson-Germer experiment, which specifically applied to electrons. Since then, the de Broglie equation has been shown to apply to elementary particles, neutral atoms, and molecules.

The Mechanisms of Cocaine Tolerance - 1300 Words

Cocaine tolerance is achieved when a larger amount of the drug is needed to reach the same intoxication or â€Å"high† previously reached by smaller amounts of the drug. This tolerance is often developed in organisms after an extensive history of exposure to cocaine. Cocaine can also have sensitization effects in organisms, which can also be described as â€Å"reverse tolerance†. The mechanisms responsible for the development of either sensitization or tolerance to cocaine are currently intertwined, and researchers have been unable to tease them apart. There are, however, some small indications of what might be responsible for cocaine tolerance. The following paper will review research in cocaine tolerance in a variety of animals, as well as humans, and the implications of the findings. Specifically, how cocaine tolerance affects operant responses in addition to physiological responses Many researchers have suggested that Pavlovian, or classical, conditioning may play a role in the development of tolerance to cocaine and other drugs in many organisms. Specifically, the rituals and environment that precede the drug administration become conditioned stimuli and the drug itself is the unconditioned stimulus. Hinson and Siegel (1999) discuss how when the rituals and environment associated with drug administration are encountered, and the drug is not delivered, organisms often display symptoms of withdrawal, sickness, and cravings. These symptoms are said to be compensatory responses, orShow MoreRelatedEssay about Addiction and the Brain1037 Words   |  5 Pagesadverse consequences related to repeated use of the drug...[involving] compulsive drug use, interference with normal activities and may include tolerance and physical dependence (2). 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When he was trying to wake up the woman, the woman was not budging, meaning she’s dead- overdosed with cocaine and this was the conflict of the story, and also he was running away from his boss because he took a great amount of money in their company and invested it on stocks and heRead MoreEssay on Cocaine and the Brain: The Neurobio logy of Addiction2205 Words   |  9 PagesCocaine and the Brain: The Neurobiology of Addiction In the eyes of the public, the word addict stirs up a negative image: a person of low moral character who willfully chooses to engage in questionable behavior. This image is perpetuated in the media; on a recent episode of E.R., the chief surgeon criticizes another doctor for allowing a heroin addict (who has been treated for an abscess) to exchange a dirty needle, explaining we donà ¢t want these low-lives hanging around the hospital. TheRead MoreHow Do Drugs Affect Our Body And Society?908 Words   |  4 Pagesacceptable, whereas drugs such as cocaine and marijuana are not, yet they both have severe adverse effects. The verbalisation that drugs are hazardous is ridiculous from a literal standpoint. A kilogram of arsenic is no more hazardous than a kilogram of lettuce - both are merely inert substances. The physical or noetic trauma is only pertinent when the chemical is ingested into a living body; all substances are toxic to the human body at some dose level. Heroin, cocaine, and marijuana pose no quandariesRead MoreDiagnosis And Classification Of Substance Use Disorders1312 Words   |  6 Pages only 1 in 6 are able to access treatment globally. These prevalence rates remain stable, but the landscape of substance use has changed in period between 2009 and 2013. During this period, there has been a significant reduction in the extent of cocaine use, with a rise in cannabis and prescription drug use and stabilization in the opiate use globally. The highest estimate of opioid and opiate use is 1.2% (0.8% for opioids and 0.4% for opiates). Non-medical injection is estimated among 45% of allRead M oreThe Relationship Between Drug Abuse and Excessive Food Consumption1674 Words   |  7 PagesIn seminar, we discussed the relationship between drug addiction and excessive food consumption. In particular, we remarked that drugs of abuse hi jack the reward pathway that evolved for hedonic food consumption. Drugs such as cocaine cause excess dopamine released in the Nucleus Accumbens, which results in a feeling of extreme pleasure. Over time, the pleasure derived from the drug decreases due to synaptic adjustment and the addict is in a state of anhedonia (lack of pleasure). Chronic drug useRead MoreEducating America about Legalization of Marijuana Essays1644 Words   |  7 Pagestopics of the 20th century. Although illegal for some time now in the United States, we know of its widespread availability and usage. Once a huge threat to society, it is now being overlooked as we turn to the seemingly more serious problems of cocaine and heroin. But should we be taking a second look at it, cracking down on enforcement and trying as hard as possible to rid our country of this drug? Well the police officer I interviewed said Billions and billions of dollars are being spentRead MoreSubstance Abuse And Its Effects On Society1285 Words   |  6 Pageslaws to regulate and control addictive drugs was the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906, which required the correct labeling of medicines that contained opiates. In 1914 the Harrison Narcotic Act banned the sale of medicines that contained opiates or cocaine and required a prescription by physicians (Brown, 1981).Then, in 1919 â€Å"spirit of temperance†, or self-control, led to the Prohibition of alcohol by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which was then revoked 14 years later (Infoplease.com

Ethanol as a Fuel Source Free Essays

Year 12 Chemistry Assessment Task 1| Ethanol as an alternative fuel| | | | Melissa Weber| 22/11/2010| | Overview The commercial production of ethanol fuel in Australia is the use of sugar cane and wheat using yeast in the fermentation process. Yeast is a fungus which can multiply in the absence of oxygen by using enzymes (e. g. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethanol as a Fuel Source or any similar topic only for you Order Now zymase) to catalyse the decomposition of sugars. Those sugars are sucrose or maltose. Suitable conditions The conditions that promote the fermentation of sugar are: * A suitable micro-organism such as yeast * Water * A suitable temperature for the fermenting yeast Low oxygen concentrations favouring the fermenting yeast * A small amount of yeast nutrients such as phosphate salt. * Once the ethanol concentration reaches 14-15% by volume, the yeast cannot survive, and the fermentation process stops. Costs Biomass fuels such as rice straw and sugar cane bagasse are being investigated as raw materials for ethanol production but the transportation costs are very high and do not justify their use. Genetically modified crops are being analysed and this could provide a cheap source of biomass fuels for the production of ethanol. Production from Sugar Cane Sucrose extracted from sugarcane accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing. Most of the industrial processing of sugarcane in Brazil is done through a very integrated production chain, allowing sugar production, industrial ethanol processing, and electricity generation from by-products. The typical steps for large scale production of sugar and ethanol include milling, electricity generation, fermentation, distillation of ethanol, and dehydration. Replacement for distillation With increasing attention being paid to saving energy, many methods have been proposed that avoid distillation altogether for dehydration. Of these methods, a third method has emerged and has been adopted by the majority of modern ethanol plants. This new process uses molecular sieves to remove water from fuel ethanol. In this process, ethanol vapour under pressure passes through a bed of molecular sieve beads. The bead’s pores are sized to allow absorption of water while excluding ethanol. After a period of time, the bed is regenerated under vacuum or in the flow of inert atmosphere to remove the absorbed water. Two beds are used so that one is available to absorb water while the other is being regenerated. This dehydration technology can account for energy saving of 3,000 btus/gallon (840 kJ/l) compared to earlier azeotropic distillation. . Diagrams DISTILLATION| | STRUCTURE| FORMULAC6H12O6 ;gt; 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH (ethanol) 180. 00g ;gt; 88. 00g + 92. 00g| Ethanol vs. Fuel Arguments for ethanol as a fuel| Arguments against ethanol as a fuel| It is a clean and efficient use of energy. It is much safer then petrol (Ethanol is biodegradable without harmful effects on the environment) and will greatly reduce the spread of pollution. Seeing that it is not a fossil-fuel, manufacturing it and burning it does not increase the greenhouse effect. Ethanol can reduce net carbon dioxide emissions by up to 100% on a full life-cycle basis. High-level ethanol blends can reduce emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) by 30% or more (VOCs are major sources of ground-level ozone formation) * High-level ethanol blends reduce nitrogen oxide emissions| Ethanol is clean but it only produces two-thirds the energy of octane, hence more is needed| It is a much healthier alternative for people: * Sulphur dioxide and Particulate Matter (PM) emi ssions are significantly decreased with ethanol. As an octane enhancer, ethanol can cut emissions of cancer-causing benzene and butadiene by more than 50% * It provides high octane at low cost as an alternative to harmful fuel additives. * Ethanol can be used as an additive instead of lead which is a toxic pollutant in major cities. It will significantly reduces harmful exhaust emissions meaning more healthy in urban areas| The increased need for land clearing for crops (sugar cane) has led to huge problems of soil erosion, salination and the over use of water resources e. . Brazil| It is renewable and relatively cheap to produce, whereas oil supplies are limited to perhaps 50-60 years| Oil reserves are depleting but new reserves are being found with sophisticated techniques| Addition of ethanol to petrol reduces the amount of oxygen in combustion and reduces the emission of carbon. Ethanol blends can be used in all petrol engines without modifications| The cost of producing ethanol in 2008 was twice the cost of petrol. Australia has a 10% blend which is competitive at the moment| Ethanol can be produced anywhere in the world (Brazil, Tanzania, Australia) and will reduce the monopoly of Arab nations. As it is easily accessible for each country the difficulty and hazards in transporting will be reduced| 80% of the world’s transport is dependent on fossil fuels. Changing to an ethanol base will be an economic nightmare| Current use of ethanol Continent| % of energy needs supplied by biomass| Continent| % of energy needs supplied by biomass| Australia| 5%| Oceania| 35%| Africa| 55%| North America| 4%| South America| 26%| Europe| 2-3%| Asia| 38%| former USSR| 3%| Sydney buses have trialled the use of Diesohol. Diesohol is a mixture of 10-15% ethanol in diesel fuel – it has been made possible by the development of a process which emulsifies the ethanol in the diesel. Using Diesohol reduces smoke, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in the vehicles exhaust. Up to about 10% ethanol can be added to petrol without requiring any alteration in car engines. Cars can run on 100% ethanol, but this requires engine modification. Ethanol does not release as much energy per gram as hydrocarbons do on burning. However, ethanol does reduce pollutants in vehicle exhaust. This is particularly advantageous when using Diesohol in trucks and buses in large polluted cities. The use of ethanol as a fuel is neutral as far as releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. When ethanol is burned, it produces carbon dioxide, however, this carbon dioxide is taken out of the atmosphere by growing plants to produce more ethanol. If crops are grown specifically to produce ethanol by fermentation, very large areas of land would be required. It has been estimated that if Australia used all its cereal and sugar crops to produce ethanol, this would still only provide enough fuel to replace about 10% of its current petroleum use. Obviously, this amount of land could not be devoted to the production of transport fuel rather than food. However, it may be that in the future, with improvements in fermentation technology, plant waste material could be used to produce ethanol. It may be that there are better ways to harness energy from the sun than by growing plants which are then fermented to produce ethanol. Combustion of ethanol only releases about one third of the energy from sunlight which was originally trapped by, for example, sugar cane plants. Ethanol is still much more expensive to produce than petrol. The expenses involved in the production of ethanol include the effort put into growing the plant material, transporting plant material to processing plants and the energy required to separate the ethanol from the fermentation mixture by distillation. Ethanol consumption in an engine is approximately 51% higher than for gasoline since the energy per unit volume of ethanol is 34% lower than for gasoline. However, the higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only engine allow for increased power output and better fuel economy than could be obtained with lower compression ratios Cost of ethanol in Australia Taxation * Domestically produced fuel ethanol is currently effectively exempt from excise tax until July 1, 2011 (an excise of 38. 43 cents per litre is payable on petrol). From this date, excise will be increased at 2. 5 cents per litre annually until it reaches 12. 5 cents per litre in 2015 Government Support * Federal Government support for fuel ethanol includes a voluntary industry biofuels target (encompassing ethanol, biodiesel, and other biofuels) of 350 million litres per annum by 2010, capital grants to current and prospective producers, fuel excise relief, and an effective tariff on imported ethanol until July 1, 2011. In 2006, the Premiers of both New South Wales and Queensland proposed mandating the blending of ethanol into petrol. Marketing * E10 is available through service stations operating under the BP, Caltex, Shell and United brands as well as those of a number of smaller independents. E10 is most widely available closer to the sources of production in Queensland and New South Wales. E10 is most commonly blended with 91 RON â€Å"regular unleaded† fuel. Bibliography Biofuel in Australia. (2010, 11 20). Retrieved 11 22, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Australia Catalyst Teaching Resouces. (2001). Investigating ethanol as a fuel , 1-5. Ethanol from glucose (2010, http://hsconline. nsw. edu. au/). [Motion Picture]. Ethanol from sugar (2010, http://hsconline. nsw. edu. au/). [Motion Picture]. Ethanol Fuel. (n. d. ). Retrieved 11 21, 2010, from Journey to forever: http://journeytoforever. org/ethanol. html Ethanol Fuel. (2010, 11 10). Retrieved 11 22, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in Ethanol fuel in Brazil. (2010, 10 31). Retrieved 11 18, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel_in_Brazil MONCEAUX, P. M. (2008, 08 28). Fuel ethanol production. Retrieved 11 17, 2010, from bioethanol: http://www. bioethanol. ru/images/bioethanol/Fuel%20ethanol%20production%20-%20Katzen. pdf How to cite Ethanol as a Fuel Source, Papers